(By Mark Zhakevich)

What is Man?

The constitution of man is presented in two major views: dichotomy and trichotomy. [1]  Dichotomists argue that man consists of body and soul/spirit, while the trichotomists maintain that the man consists of body, soul, and spirit. The distinction lies in the definition of the immaterial part of the person, whether there is any difference between the soul and the spirit. [2]  Based on (1) the Old Testament teaching of man as a unified being, (2) the two part presentation of man in the NT, and (3) the exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:23 and Hebrews 4:12, the dichotomist understanding is preferred. 

OT on Man’s Composition 

The first time man appears in the Bible is in Genesis 1:26 where God contemplates the creation of man. This is followed by Genesis 2:7 where God forms man from the dust of the ground and breathes the "breath of life" into him who then becomes a living being.  Only two aspects are described in this passage: the physical and the breath, there is no reference to a third aspect. [3] The primary OT term for man is nephesh, which refers to "'man's total nature, for what he is and not just what he has;'" [4] this term "stands for the entire person." [5]  Solomon affirms the dichotomist understanding of man when he says "the dust will return to the earth as it was, and the spirit will return to God who gave it (Eccl 12:7, NASB)."  The OT seems to distinguish only between the spiritual and the physical aspects of man without adding a third component. 

NT on Man’s Composition 

The NT likewise portrays man as possessing a body (soma) and soul/spirit (pneuma/psuche). The former refers to the physical aspect of man; the two latter terms refer to the immaterial.  In 2 Corinthians 7:1, Paul addresses the topic of sanctification, urging his readers to pursue complete holiness.  He writes: "let us cleanse ourselves from all defilement of flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness."  As he explains the areas of the individual that sanctification is to affect, he only mentions two: the spirit and the body.  His point is not that only those two parts should be holy, while the mind and the heart can be perverse, rather, he bifurcates the person into the material and immaterial. [6]  Paul is after holiness and if he delineates only two parts that the individual needs to concentrate on to be entirely holy, the implication is there is no third part; otherwise complete holiness will not be attained. 

In John 10:28, Jesus upholds the dual division of man when He encourages His disciples not to "fear those who kill the body but are unable to kill the soul; but rather fear Him who is able to destroy both soul and body in hell.”  Jesus is talking about eternity and one would think if there was another part of a person that might be eternally destroyed by God, Jesus would have mentioned it.  Jesus encapsulates the whole of man's material and immaterial existence in the terms "body" and "soul.”     
When the NT mentions "spirit" and "soul," it equates the two terms.  This is seen in Mary's Magnificat in Luke 1:46-47 where she says: "my soul exalts the Lord and my spirit has rejoiced in God my Savior."  One option is to interpret soul and spirit as referring to different parts of a person's being, [7] however, the parallel fails when we apply the same rationale to "Lord" and "God," thereby making these terms to be references to two deities.  A better way to interpret this statement is to apply the rules of Hebrew parallelism, "in which the second line repeats the thought of the first but with different words. Just as spirit and soul refer to man's spiritual or rational nature, so Lord and God refer to one Deity." [8]  Mary is not accentuating a fine distinction by referring to soul and spirit; she is merely referring to the same immaterial part of the human being.

What about 1 Thessalonians 5:23?

Some argue for trichotomy from 1 Thessalonians 5:23 [9] where Paul writes, "Now may the God of peace Himself sanctify you entirely, and may your spirit and soul and body be preserved complete, without blame at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ."  Is he referring to another part or is he equating "soul" with "spirit?"  Paul is emphasizing total sanctification of the man (cf. 1 Cor 7:34, 2 Cor 7:1) by compounding synonyms. [10]  In Matthew 22:37, Jesus does the same when he tells the lawyer to love God with all of his heart, soul, and mind.  In Mark 12:29-30, it is written that the individual is to love God with his heart, soul, mind, and strength.  These verses are not attempting to divide man's composition into various parts, rather, they emphasize wholeness.  If division in the person was the focus, then we could derive five or even six parts in the man: body, soul, spirit, mind, strength, and heart.  Jesus, however, is not dissecting the man, rather he is teaching that one's love for God must flow out of every part of the person; the whole being must love God. 

Paul uses a similar device in 1 Thessalonians 5:23 and prays that the sanctification of the Thessalonians be whole, which includes the material part (body) and the immaterial part (whether it is called spirit or soul).  Complete sanctification is the central issue, not a lesson on the anatomy of a man.  There is a clear parallel with 1 Thessalonians 3:13 where Paul prays for the purity of their hearts.  The heart controls the life of a person, the mind, the intellect and the emotions of a person; all these should be holy.  F. F. Bruce argues that spirit, soul, and body in 1 Thessalonians 5:23 "together give further emphasis to the completeness of sanctification for which the writer prays, but the three together add but little to the sense of ["your hearts"] in 3:13." [11]  Paul piles up synonyms to refer to the totality of a person's being; praying the same prayer in 5:23 and in 3:13, namely that the Thessalonians would be completely blameless at the appearing of Christ. [12]

What about Hebrews 4:12?

At first glance, it seems that the author of Hebrews 4:12 is calling for a division between spirit and soul.  If that were the case, then the author of Hebrews is listing six different parts of a man, not merely three. [13]  It is better to understand this verse as emphasizing the living Word of God.  The Word of God is so powerful that it is able to reach deep down into the inner parts of a man, call it soul or spirit or mind; it is able to shine light into that deep part.  Nothing is hidden from the penetrating Word of God, "it can scrutinize the innermost thoughts of the human heart." [14]  Grudem comments that "the Word of God is so powerful that it will search out and expose all disobedience and lack of submission to God." [15]  The author of Hebrews is not dissecting the man; [16] rather this verse contains a "rhetorical accumulation of terms to express the whole mental nature of man on all its sides." [17]         

Conclusion

Not only do the OT texts, but passages in which Jesus, Paul and Mary speak, equate the spirit with the soul.  Even though at first glance 1 Thessalonians 5:23 and Hebrews 4:12 appear to support trichotomy, based on context and to be consistent with the rest of Scripture, it is better to interpret these verses from a dichotomist perspective.  Paul encouraged the believer to pursue the image of Christ in his total being, not merely certain parts.   

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END NOTES:

[1] There is a third view, monism, which maintains that man is a single element and his body is the person. Cf. Millard J. Erickson's, Christian  Theology, 2 vols. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1984), 2:524-27.

[2] The trichotomist defines the soul as the intellect of man, his emotions, and his will. It is the part that can be yielded either to the service of God or to sin. The spirit however, is a higher faculty in a man, it is the part that "most directly relates to God."  In contrast, Grudem argues that there is no clear difference in the functions of each from a biblical perspective. "Everything that the soul is said to do, the spirit is also said to do and everything that the spirit is said to do, the soul is also said to do."  The spirit and soul are both said to be able to think, display emotions, praise God, and are affected by sin (Cf. Mark 2:8, Mark 7:20-23, Acts 17:6, Matt 26:38, John 4:23, Psa 146:1, 2 Cor 7:1, Jam 1:21).  Wayne Grudem, Bible Doctrine: Essential Teachings of the Christian Faith, ed. by Jeff Purswell (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1999), 193-95.  
 
[3] David P. Scaer, "Theological Observer: Body, Soul, and Spirit," Concordia Theological Quarterly 66/2 (Apr 2002): 168.

[4] As quoted in George J. Zemek, A Biblical Theology of the Doctrines of Sovereign Grace (Little Rock, Ark.: B. T. D. S. G., 2002), 14.

[5] Waltke, "nephesh," TWOT, 2:590.

[6] Cf. 1 Corinthians 7:34 where Paul also discusses holiness and consistent with 2 Corinthians 7:1, he writes: "to be holy in body and spirit."

[7] David Scaer notes that trichotomists interpret this statement as a reference to two parts in a human being. David P. Scaer, "Theological Observer," 168.

[8] Ibid.

[9] For thorough exegesis  on 1 Thessalonians 5:23 and the trichotomy-dichotomy debate, please refer to footnote 13 in William Hendriksen and Simon J. Kistemaker, Exposition of Thessalonians, the Pastorals, and Hebrews, NTC (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 2004), 146-50. 

[10] Grudem, Bible Doctrines, 196.

[11] F. F. Bruce, 1&2 Thessalonians, WBC (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1982), 130. Cf. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2:539.

[12] A.T. Robertson notes that both the verb "preserved" and the adjective "complete" are in singular person, therefore "Paul conceives of the man as 'an undivided whole,' [it is a] prayer for the consecration of both body and soul."  Paul is not emphasizing each individual aspect of man, rather the whole of man's being.  A. T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament, 6 vols. (Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman Press, 1931), 4:39.  

[13] Grudem helpfully notes that "we do not divide joints from marrow, for joints are the places where bones meet, not the places where joints meet marrow." Cf. Grudem, Systematic Theology, 479.  Robert Reymond explains that "'soul' and 'spirit' are both genitives governed by the participle 'dividing,'" therefore, the author is saying that "the Word of God divides the soul, even the spirit" (emphasis his).  Robert L. Reymond, A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith (Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998), 422.   

[14] Harold W. Attridge, The Epistle to the Hebrews, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 135.

[15] Grudem, Systematic Theology, 479.

[16] "Our author is not concerned to provide  here a psychological  or anatomical analysis of the human constitution, but rather to describe in graphic terms  the penetration of God's word to the innermost depth of man's personality." Philip Edgcumbe Hughes, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977), 165.

[17] Quoted in James Moffatt, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews, ICC (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1952), 56.  Cf. F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews, rev. ed., NICNT (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1990), 113.